MERSİNLİ RESSAM

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MODERN PAINTER AND MODERNISM

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MODERN PAINTER AND MODERNISM

Abed Abdi (1942 - ), Palestinian Israeli painter, illustrator, graphic designer, sculpturor and master blacksmith
Asencio (1972-)
Bilal Geniş (1954 - ) Turk Painter Poet Penman Musıcıan
Herb Aach (1923–1985)
Hans von Aachen (1552–1615), German mannerist painter
Pacita Abad (1946–2004), multi-media artist and painter, born in the Philippines
Riza Abbasi (1565–1635), Persian miniaturist, painter and calligrapher of the Isfahan School
Giuseppe Abbati (1836–1868), Italian artist of the Macchiaioli group
Louise Abbéma (1853–1927)
Edwin Austin Abbey (1852–1911), American artist, illustrator and painter
Mary Abbott (1921– )
Basuki Abdullah (1915–1993), Southeast Asian artist
Rowena Meeks Abdy (1887–1945)
Josef Abel (1768–1818), Austrian historical painter and etcher
Gertrude Abercrombie (1909–1977), American artist
Johann Ludwig Aberli (1723–1786)
Anna Maria Barbara Abesch (1706–1773)
Nikolaj Abraham Abildgaard (1743–1809), Danish artist and antiquarian draughtsman
Herbert Abrams (1921–2003)
Ruth Abrams (1912–1986)
Philip Absolon (1960– ), British artist and a founder member of the Stuckists art group
Otto Abt (1903–1982)
Ismail Acar (1971– ), Turkish artist in painting
Bernard Accama (1697–1756), Dutch historical and portrait painter
Andreas Achenbach (1815–1910), German landscape painter
Oswald Achenbach (1827–1905), German landscape painter
J. Ottis Adams (1851–1927)
Pat Adams (1928– )
Jankel Adler (1895–1949), Polish painter and printmaker
Willem van Aelst (1627–1683)
Pieter Aertsen (1508–1575), Dutch historical painter
Nadir Afonso (1920– ), geometric abstractionist painter
Leonid Afremov (1955– ), Belarus born, Israeli modern painter of landscapes, cityscapes and figures
Yaacov Agam (1928– ), Israeli sculptor and experimental artist
Lubna Agha (1949– ), South Asian artist
Jacques-Laurent Agasse (1767–1848), animal and landscape painter
Knud Agger (1895–1973)
Christoph Ludwig Agricola (1667–1719), German landscape painter
Ahn Gyeon
Ai Xuan (1947– ), Chinese painter
Ai-Mitsu (1907–1946)
Ivan Aivazovsky (1817–1900), Russian painter of Armenian descent, especially of seascapes
Tadeusz Ajdukiewicz (1852–1916), Polish painter of portraits
Francesco Albani (1578–1660), Italian Baroque painter
Josef Albers (1888–1976), German-born American artist, mathematician and educator
Mariotto Albertinelli (1474–1515), High Renaissance Italian painter of the Florentine school
Giocondo Albertolli (1743–1839)
Ivan Albright (1897–1983), magic realist painter and artist, especially of self-portraits, character studies, and still lifes
Kazimierz Alchimowicz (1840–1916), Lithuanian-born, Polish romantic painter
L. Alcopley (1910–1992), German-American artist at the New York School
Pierre Alechinsky (1927– ), Belgian artist
Fedor Alekseev (1753–1824), Russian painter of landscapes
Mikoláš Aleš (1852–1913), Czech painter
Larry D. Alexander (1953- ), American artist (realism), teacher, and author
Else Alfelt (1910–1974), Danish painter and one of the two women in the CoBrA movement
Brian Alfred (1974– ), New York painter who specializes in depictions of urban spaces
David Allan (1744–1796), Scottish painter, especially of historical subjects
Alessandro Allori (1535–1607), Italian portrait painter of the late Mannerist Florentine school
Cristofano Allori (1577–1621), Italian portrait painter of the late Mannerist Florentine school
Washington Allston (1779–1843), American poet and painter
Laura Theresa Alma-Tadema (1852–1909), second wife of the painter Lawrence Alma-Tadema and a painter in her own right
Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1836–1912), Dutch-born English painter, especially of luxury and decadence of the Roman Empire
Almeida Júnior (1859–1899), Brazilian realist painter
Charles Alston (1907–1977), African American artist, muralist, and teacher
Margareta Alströmer (1763–1816), Swedish painter and singer
Rudolf von Alt (1812–1908), Austrian landscape and architectural painter
Albrecht Altdorfer (1480–1538), German landscape painter, printmaker and architect of the Renaissance era
Altichiero (1330–1395), Italian painter of the Gothic style
John Altoon (1925–1969), painter
Pedro Álvarez Castelló (1967–2004), Cuban artist
Edmond Aman-Jean (1860–1936), French symbolist painter
Tarsila do Amaral (1886–1973), Latin American modernist artist
Gregory Amenoff (1948– )
Friedrich von Amerling (1803–1887), Austro-Hungarian portrait painter in the court of Franz Josef
Cuno Amiet (1868–1961)
Jacopo Amigoni (1682–1752), Italian painter of the late-Baroque or Rococo period
Rodolfo Amoedo (1857–1941), Brazilian painter and interior designer
Rick Amor (1948– ), Australian war artist and figurative painter
An Zhengwen
Anna Ancher (1859–1935), Danish pictorial artist, especially of interiors and simple themes from the everyday lives of the Skagen people
Michael Peter Ancher (1849–1927), Danish portrait painter
Werner Andermatt (1916-)
Caesar Andrade Faini (1913–1995 ), Ecuadorian painter and teacher
Alfons Anders (1928–1998)
Dagmar Anders (1949–)
Sophie Gengembre Anderson (1823–1903)
Emma Andijewska (1931-), Ukrainian surrealist painter, poet and writer
Constantine Andreou (1917–2007), painter and sculptor of Greek origin
Anthony Angarola (1893–1929), American painter
Fra Angelico (1387–1445), Early Italian Renaissance painter
Heinz Anger (1941-)
Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa (1872–1952), Spanish painter
Charles Angrand (1854–1926), French neo-Impressionist painter and anarchist
Sofonisba Anguissola (1532–1625), Italian painter of the Renaissance
Rita Angus (1908–1970), New Zealand painter of portraits and landscapes
Albert Anker (1831–1910), Swiss painter
Louis Anquetin (1861–1932), French painter and author
Pieter van Anraadt (1635–1678)
Lizzy Ansingh (1875–1959), Dutch painter
Horst Antes (1936– ), German painter and sculptor
Richard Anuszkiewicz (1930– ), American artist of Op Art
Aoki Shigeru (1882–1911)
Aoshima Chiho (1974- )
Apelles (4th century BC), painter of ancient Greece
Zvest Apollonio (1935–2009), Italian/Slovenian artist
Karel Appel (1921–2006), Dutch painter, sculptor and poet
Oscar Araripe (1941– ), Brazilian artist, writer, educator, and social and ecological activist
Félix Arauz (1935– ), Latin American painter from Ecuador
Giuseppe Arcimboldo (1527–1593), Italian painter especially of portrait heads made entirely of objects such as fruits and vegetables
Arent Arentsz (1585–1631)
Avigdor Arikha (1929–2010 ), Israeli and French painter, printmaker, and art historian
Abram Arkhipov (1862–1930)
John Armleder (1948– ), Swiss Neo-Geo artist of paintings and sculptures
Georg Arnold-Graboné (1896–1982)
Jean Arp (1886–1966), German-French sculptor, painter, poet and abstract artist
Richard Artschwager (1929–)
Asai Chū (1856–1907)
Pieter Jansz van Asch (1603–1678)
Ásgrímur Jónsson (1876–1958)
Dennis Ashbaugh (1946-)
Ashiyuki Gigadō
Hans Asper (1499–1571)
Jan Asselijn (1610–1652)
Balthasar van der Ast (1593–1657)
Nikolai Astrup (1880–1928)
Jean-Michel Atlan (1913–1960), French artist
René Victor Auberjonois (1872–1957), Swiss artist
John James Audubon (1785–1851), American ornithologist, naturalist, hunter, and painter
Frank Auerbach (1931–), German-born British painter especially of female models and scenes of London
Jules Robert Auguste (1789–1850), French Impressionist painter
George Ault (1891–1948), American painter
Giuseppe Avanzi (1645–1718), Italian Baroque painter
Edward Avedisian (1936–2007), American abstract painter
Hendrick Avercamp (1585–1634), Dutch landscape painter
Milton Avery (1885–1965), American modern painter
Nikola Avramov (1897–1945), Bulgarian painter especially of still lifes
Awataguchi Takamitsu
Ay-O (1931- )
Aya Goda
Anton Ažbe (1870–1949), Slovene painter and teacher
Giovanni Bernardino Azzolini or Mazzolini or Asoleni (c.1572- c.1645), Italian painter

STILL LIFE PAINTERS AND STILL LIFE PAINTINGS

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Still Life Paintings Artists Index

Aelst, Willem van 1627-c.1683
Angermayer, Johann Adalbert 1674-1740
Arcimboldo, Giuseppe 1527-1593
Ast, Balthasar van der 1594-1657
Baschenis, Evaristo 1617-1677
Baugin, Lubin c.1610-1663
Beert, Osias c.1580-1624
Beyeren, Abraham Hendrickz van c.1620-1690
Boel, Pieter 1622-1674
Bosschaert, Johannes c.1610-c.1650
Bosschaert, Jean Baptiste 1667-1746
Bosschaert the Elder, Ambrosius 1573-1621
Byss, Johann Rudolf 1660-1738
Cezanne, Paul 1839-1906
Claesz, Pieter c.1597-1660
Craen, Laurens 1612-1666
Dael, Jan Frans van 1764-1840
Es, Jacob Fopsen van 1596-1666
Faes, Pieter 1750-1814
Flegel, Georg 1566-1638
Heade, Martin Johnson 1819-1904
Heda, Willem Claesz 1594-1680
Heem, Jan Davidsz de c.1600-c.1683
Heem, Cornelis de 1631-1695
Huysum, Jan van 1682-1749
Genis, Bilal 1954
Kalf, Willem 1619-1693
Lacroix, Paul 1827-1869
Ladell, Edward 1821-1886
Mignon, Abraham 1640-1679
Redon, Odilon 1840-1916
Roepel, Coenraet 1678-1748
Ruysch, Rachel 1664-1750
Schrieck, Otto Marseus van c.1619/20-1678
Snyders, Frans 1579-1657
Spelt, Adrian van der c.1630-1673
Vallayer-Coster, Anne 1744-1818
Wedig, Gottfried von c.1583-1641
Weenix, Jan 1640-1719
Weenix, Jan Baptist 1621-1660
Willeboirts Bosschaert, Thomas 1614-1654
Wyant, Alexander Helwig 1836-1892


Still Life Paintings - Art History Information

Still life is a work of art which represents a subject composed of inanimate objects. Popular in Western art since the 17th century, still life paintings, such as of flowers or fruit, give the artist more leeway in the arrangement of design elements within a composition than do paintings of other types of subjects such as landscape or portraiture.

Still life paintings often adorn the walls of ancient Egyptian tombs. It was believed that the foodstuffs and other items depicted there would, in the afterlife, become real and available for use by the deceased. Similar paintings, more simply decorative in intent, have also been found in the Roman frescoes unearthed at Pompeii and Herculaneum. The popular appreciation of still life painting as a demonstration of the artist's skill is related in the ancient Greek legend of Zeuxis and Parrhasius.

Through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, still life in Western art was mainly used as an adjunct to Christian religious subjects. This was particularly true in the work of Northern European artists, whose fascination with highly detailed optical realism and disguised symbolism led them to lavish great attention on the meanings of various props and settings within their paintings' overall message. Painters such as Jan van Eyck often used still life elements as part of an iconographic program so dense that scholars to this day are still debating the possible symbolic significance of each flower, candle, or stone.

Still life came into its own in the new artistic climate of the Netherlands in the 17th century. While artists found limited opportunity to produce the religious art which had long been their staple (images of religious subjects were forbidden in the Dutch Reformed Protestant Church), the continuing Northern tradition of detailed realism and hidden symbols appealed to the growing Dutch middle classes, who were replacing Church and State as the principal patrons of art in the Netherlands.

Especially popular in this period were vanitas paintings, in which sumptuous arrangements of fruit and flowers, or lavish banquet tables with fine silver and crystal, were accompanied by symbolic reminders of life's impermanence. A skull, an hourglass or pocket watch, a candle burning down or a book with pages turning, would serve as a moralizing message on the ephemerality of sensory pleasures. Often some of the luscious fruits and flowers themselves would be shown starting to spoil or fade. The popularity of vanitas paintings, and of still life generally, soon spread from Holland to Flanders, Spain, and France.

The French aristocracy of the 18th century also employed artists to execute paintings of bounteous and extravagant still life subjects, this time without the moralistic vanitas message of their Dutch predecessors. The Rococo love of artifice led to a rise in appreciation for trompe l'oeil (French: "fool the eye") painting, a type of still life in which objects are shown life-sized, against a flat background, in an attempt to create the illusion of real three dimensional objects in the viewer's space.

With the rise of the European Academies, most notably the Academie francaise which held a central role in Academic art, and their formalized approach to artistic training, still life began to fall from favor. The Academies taught the doctrine of "Hierarchy of genres" (or "Hierarchy of Subject Matter"), which held that a painting's artistic merit was based primarily on its subject. In the Academic system, the highest form of painting consisted of images of historical, Biblical or mythological significance, with still life subjects relegated to the very lowest order of artistic recognition.

It was not until the decline of the Academic hierarchy in Europe, and the rise of the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters, who emphasized technique and design over subject matter, that still life was once again avidly practiced by artists. Henri Fantin-Latour is known almost exclusively for his still lifes. Vincent van Gogh's "Sunflowers" are some of the best known 19th century still life paintings, and Paul Cezanne found in still life the perfect vehicle for his revolutionary explorations in geometric spatial organization.

Indeed, Cezanne's experiments can be seen as leading directly to the development of Cubist still life in the early 20th century. Between 1910 and 1920, Cubist artists like Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Juan Gris painted many still life compositions, often including musical instruments, as well as creating the first Synthetic Cubist collage works, such as Picasso's "Still Life with Chair Caning" (1912).

Artists in the United States, largely unburdened by Academic strictures on subject matter, had long found a ready market for still life painting. Raphaelle Peale (1774-1825), eldest son of Revolutionary era painter Charles Willson Peale, was the first American still life specialist, and established a tradition of still life painting in Philadelphia that continued until the early 20th century, when artists such as William Harnett and John Frederick Peto gained fame for their trompe l'oeil renderings of collections of worn objects and scraps of paper, typically shown hanging on a wall or door.

When 20th century American artists became aware of European Modernism, they began to interpret still life subjects with a combination of American Realism and Cubist-derived abstraction. Typical of the American still life works of this period are the paintings of Georgia O'Keeffe, Stuart Davis, and Marsden Hartley, and the photographs of Edward Weston.

Much Pop Art (such as Andy Warhol's "Campbell's Soup Cans") is based on still life, but its true subject is most often the commodified image of the commercial product represented rather than the physical still life object itself. The rise of Photorealism in the 1970s reasserted illusionistic representation, while retaining some of Pop's message of the fusion of object, image, and commercial product. Typical in this regard are the paintings of Don Eddy and Ralph Goings. The works of Audrey Flack add to this mix an autobiographical Feminist message relating to cultural standards of female beauty. While they address contemporary themes, Flack's paintings often include trompe l'oeil and vanitas elements as well, thereby referencing the entire still life tradition of Western art.

with help of wikipedia

LANDSCAPE PAINTER AND LANDSCAPEISM

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Landscape Paintings Artists Index

Aivazovsky, Ivan Konstantinovich 1817-1900
Backhuysen, Ludolf 1631-1708
Bamberger, Fritz 1814-1873
Bellotto, Bernardo 1720-1780
Bierstadt, Albert 1830-1902
Birch, Thomas 1779-1851
Bonington, Richard Parkes 1802-1828
Boudin, Eugene 1824-1898
Bradford, William 1823-1892
Bricher, Alfred Thompson 1837-1908
Bruegel the Elder, Jan 1568-1625
Canaletto, Giovanni Antonio Canal 1697-1768
Cantonese School, 19th century
Cezanne, Paul 1839-1906
Chinese School, 19th century
Church, Frederic Edwin 1826-1900
Cole, Thomas 1801-1848
Constable, John 1776-1837
Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille 1796-1875
Cropsey, Jasper Francis 1823-1900
Cuyp, Aelbert 1620-1691
Daubigny, Charles-Francois 1817-1878
Durrie, George Henry 1820-1863
Friedrich, Caspar David 1774-1840
Gifford, Sanford Robinson 1823-1880
Gignoux, Regis-Francois 1816-1882
Genis, Bilal 1954 - www.bilalart.com
Gogh, Vincent van 1853-1890
Goyen, Jan van 1596-1656
Guardi, Francesco 1712-1793
Hackert, Jacob Philippe 1737-1807
Hart, James McDougal 1828-1901
Heade, Martin Johnson 1819-1904
Homer, Winslow 1836-1910
Inness, George 1825-1894
Jones, Hugh Bolton 1848-1927
Jongkind, Johann 1819-1891
Kensett, John Frederick 1816-1872
Leader, Benjamin Williams 1831-1923
Lepine, Stanislas 1835-1892
Levitan, Isaac Ilyich 1860-1900
Michel, Georges 1763-1843
Monet, Claude 1840-1926
Moran, Thomas 1837-1926
Pissarro, Camille Jacob 1830-1903
Reinhold, Heinrich 1788-1825
Richards, William Trost 1833-1905
Rombouts, Gillis 1630-c.1678
Rousseau, Theodore 1812-1867
Salmon, Robert c.1775-c.1845
Savrasov, Alexey Kondratyevich 1830-1897
Shishkin, Ivan Ivanovich 1832-1898
Sisley, Alfred 1839-1899
Sonntag, William Louis 1822-1900
Turner, Joseph Mallord William 1775-1851
Unterberger, Franz Richard 1838-1902
Velde, the Younger, Willem van de 1633-1707
Vermeulen, Andries 1763-1814
Vries, Roelof van 1631-1681
Whittredge, Thomas Worthington 1820-1910
Wieringen, Cornelis Claesz van c.1580-1633
Wolf, Caspar 1735-1783
Wyant, Alexander Helwig 1836-1892
Ziem, Felix 1821-1911
Zuccarelli, Francesco 1702-1788


Landscape Paintings - Art History Information

Idealized landscapes were common subjects for fresco decoration in Roman villas. Landscape painting (as exemplified by a Chinese landscape scroll by Ku K'ai-chih dating from the 4th century) was an established tradition in the Far East, where themes such as the seasons and the elements held a spiritual significance.

In Europe, imaginary landscapes decorated 15th-century Books of Hours. The first naturalistic landscapes were painted by Durer and Bruegel. Landscapes appeared in most Renaissance paintings, however, only as settings to portraits and figure compositions.

It was not until the 17th-century Dutch and Flemish schools of Rembrandt, Jacob van Ruisdael, Meindert Hobbema, Aelbert Cuyp, Rubens and Hercules Seghers - that they were accepted in the West as independent subjects.

The most significant developments in 19th-century painting, however, were made through the landscapes of the Impressionists and the Post-Impressionists. Styles in landscape painting range from the tranquil, classically idealized world of Poussin and Claude, the precise, canal topography of Francesco Guardi and Canaletto and the structural analyses of Cezanne to the poetic romanticism of Samuel Palmer and the later Constable's and Turner's and the exultant pantheism of Rubens and Van Gogh.

Modern landscapes vary in approach from the Expressionism of Oskar Kokoschka's cities and rivers, Maurice de Vlaminck's wintry countrysides, and John Marin's crystalline seascapes to the metaphysical country of Ernst, Dali, and Rene Magritte.

ORIENTAL PAINTER AND ORIENTALISM

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Orientalism Artists Index

Brandt, Jozef 1841-1915
Bridgman, Frederick Arthur 1847-1928
Comerre, Leon Francois 1850-1916
Dehodencq, Alfred 1822-1882
Ernst, Rudolph 1854-1932
Frere, Charles-Theodore 1814-1888
Fromentin, Eugene 1820-1876
Genis, Bilal 1954
Gerome, Jean Leon 1824-1904
Lewis, John Frederick 1805-1876
Liotard, Jean Etienne 1702-1789
Pasini, Alberto 1826-1899
Ralli, Theodore Jacques 1852-1909
Roberts, David 1796-1864
Rosati, Giulio 1858-1917
Trouillebert, Paul Desire 1829-1900
Wierusz-Kowalski, Alfred von 1849-1915
Yvon, Adolphe 1817-1893


Orientalism - Art History Information

Orientalism is the study of Near and Far Eastern societies and cultures by Westerners. It can also refer to the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers, designers and artists.

In the former meaning the term is becoming obsolete, increasingly being used only to refer to the study of the East during the historical period of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. Because of this, the term Orientalism has come to acquire negative connotations in some quarters, implying old-fashioned and prejudiced interpretations of Eastern cultures and peoples.

Depictions of Islamic Moors can be found in Medieval and Renaissance art, but it was not until the 19th century that "Orientalism" in the arts became an established theme. In these works the myth of the Orient as exotic and corrupt is most fully articulated. Such works typically concentrated on Near-Eastern Islamic cultures. Artists such as Eugene Delacroix and Jean-Leon Gerome painted many depictions of Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques, and stressing lassitude and visual spectacle. When Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, director of the French Academie de peinture painted a highly-colored vision of a turkish bath, he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms, who might all have been of the same model. If his painting had simply been retitled "In a Paris Brothel," it would have been far less acceptable. Sensuality was seen as acceptable in the exotic Orient. This Orientalizing imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in Matisse's orientalist nudes. In these works the "Orient" often functions as a mirror to Western culture itself, or as a way of expressing its hidden or illicit aspects. In Gustave Flaubert's novel Salammbo ancient Carthage in North Africa is used as a foil to ancient Rome. Its culture is portrayed as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient Semitic cultures.

SURREALIST PAINTERS AND SURREALISM

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Bonnard, Pierre 1867-1947
Botero, Fernando born in 1932
Braque, Georges 1882-1963
Chagall, Marc 1887-1985
Dali, Salvador 1904-1989
Davis, Stuart 1894-1964
Derain, Andre 1880-1954
Diller, Burgoyne 1906-1965
Dufy, Raoul 1877-1953
Genis, Bilal 1954
Grimshaw, John Atkinson 1836-1893
Hartley, Marsden 1877-1943
Jawlensky, Alexei von 1864-1941
Kandinsky, Wassily 1866-1944
Leger, Fernand 1881-1955
Lichtenstein, Roy 1923-1997
Lindner, Richard 1901-1978
Matisse, Henri 1869-1954
Miro, Joan 1893-1983
Modigliani, Amedeo Clemente 1884-1920
Mondrian, Piet 1872-1944
Parrish, Maxfield 1870-1966
Picasso, Pablo 1881-1973
Ray, Man 1890-1976
Redon, Odilon 1840-1916
Rivera, Diego 1886-1957
Schiele, Egon 1890-1918
Seurat, Georges 1859-1891
Vuillard, Edouard 1868-1940


Surrealism, Expressionism, Nabis & Other Styles - Art History Information

Surrealism
Artistic and literary movement that explored and celebrated the realm of dreams and the unconscious mind through the creation of visual art, poetry, and motion pictures. Surrealism was officially launched in Paris, France, in 1924, when French writer Andre Breton wrote the first surrealist manifesto, outlining the ambitions of the new movement. (Breton published two more surrealist manifestoes, in 1930 and 1942.) The movement soon spread to other parts of Europe and to North and South America. Among surrealism is most important contributions was the invention of new artistic techniques that tapped into the artist's unconscious mind.

Dada
Early 20th-century art movement, whose members sought to ridicule the culture of their time through deliberately absurd performances, poetry, and visual art. Dadaists embraced the extraordinary, the irrational, and the contradictory largely in reaction to the unprecedented and incomprehensible brutality of World War I (1914-1918). Their work was driven in part by a belief that deep-seated European values-nationalism, militarism, and even the long tradition of rational philosophy-were implicated in the horrors of the war. Dada is often described as nihilistic-that is, rejecting all moral values; however, dadaists considered their movement an affirmation of life in the face of death.

Expressionism
in the visual, literary, and performing arts, a movement or tendency that strives to express subjective feelings and emotions rather than to depict reality or nature objectively. The movement developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a reaction against the academic standards that had prevailed in Europe since the Renaissance (1300-1600), particularly in French and German art academies. In expressionism the artist tries to present an emotional experience in its most compelling form. The artist is not concerned with reality as it appears but with its inner nature and with the emotions aroused by the subject. To achieve these ends, the subject is frequently caricatured, exaggerated, distorted, or otherwise altered in order to stress the emotional experience in its most intense and concentrated form.

Although the term expressionism was not applied to painting until 1911, the qualities attributed to expressionism are found in the art of almost every country and period. Some Chinese and Japanese art emphasizes the essential qualities of the subject rather than its physical appearance. Painters and sculptors of medieval Europe exaggerated their work for the Romanesque and early Gothic cathedrals to intensify the spiritual expressiveness of the subjects. Intense religious emotions expressed through distortion are found also in the 16th-century works of the Spanish painter El Greco and the German painter Matthias Grunewald. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh, the French artist Paul Gauguin and the Norwegian painter Edvard Munch used violent colors and exaggerated lines to obtain intense emotional expression.

The most important expressionist group in the 20th century was the German school. The movement was originated by the painters Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Erich Heckel, and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, who in 1905 organized a group in Dresden called Die Brucke. They were joined in 1906 by Emil Nolde and Max Pechstein and in 1910 by Otto Muller. In 1912 this group exhibited paintings along with a Munich group that called itself Der Blaue Reiter. The latter included the German painters Franz Marc, August Macke and Heinrich Campendonk; the Swiss artist Paul Klee, and the Russian painter Wassily Kandinsky. This phase of expressionism in Germany was marked by the conscious exposition of emotions and a heightened sense of the possibilities for expressive content. Die Brucke was dissolved by 1913, and World War I (1914-1918) halted most group activity. The fauves in France, as well as the French painter Georges Braque and the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso, at a certain period of their development, were influenced by expressionism.

A new phase of German expressionism called Die Neue Sachlichkeit grew out of the disillusionment following World War I. Founded by Otto Dix and George Grosz, it was characterized by both a concern for social truths and an attitude of satiric bitterness and cynicism. Expressionism meanwhile had become an international movement, and the influence of the Germans is seen in the works of such artists as the Austrian painter Oskar Kokoschka, the French artist Georges Rouault, the Lithuanian-born French painter Chaim Soutine, the Bulgarian-born French painter Jules Pascin, and the American painter Max Weber.

Abstract expressionism appeared in the United States following the end of World War II in 1945. Abstract expressionist painters, such as Mark Rothko, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, and Jackson Pollock, attempted to transmit basic emotions through vivid colors, bold forms, and spontaneous methods of dripping and flinging paint-all without recognizable subjects.

Expressionist sculpture has its roots in the work of the 19th-century French sculptor Auguste Rodin, who expressed the inner states of his subjects within representational forms. He strongly influenced the work of his assistant Antoine Bourdelle, the British sculptor Jacob Epstein, and the German Ernst Barlach. All of their work, expressed in the human figure, involves various forms of distortion, such as exaggeration, elongation, and massiveness.

Nabis
group of French painters, active from 1889 to 1899, who practiced a colorful postimpressionist style with symbolist overtones. They were influenced principally by the French painter Paul Gauguin's flat, brilliant colors and by the sinuous lines of art nouveau. The group included Pierre Bonnard, Maurice Denis, Edouard Vuillard, Felix Vallotton and Paul Serusier.

IMPRESSIONIST PAINTERS AND IMPRESSIONISM

PAINTER

POET

PENMAN

RESSAM

ŞAİR

YAZAR

BİLAL GENİŞ

Impressionism and Post-Impressionism Artists Index

Benson, Frank Weston 1862-1951
Beraud, Jean 1849-1935
Boldini, Giovanni 1842-1931
Bonnard, Pierre 1867-1947
Boudin, Eugene 1824-1898
Caillebotte, Gustave 1848-1894
Cassatt, Mary Stevenson 1844-1926
Cezanne, Paul 1839-1906
Chase, William Merritt 1849-1916
Degas, Hilaire Germain Edgar 1834-1917
Gauguin, Paul 1848-1903
Genis, Bilal 1954
Goeneutte, Norbert 1854-1894
Gogh, Vincent van 1853-1890
Hassam, Frederick Childe 1859-1935
Jongkind, Johann 1819-1891
Lepine, Stanislas 1835-1892
Manet, Edouard 1832-1883
Monet, Claude 1840-1926
Pissarro, Camille Jacob 1830-1903
Renoir, Pierre-Auguste 1841-1919
Rousseau (Le Douanier), Henri 1844-1910
Rysselberghe, Theo van 1862-1926
Sargent, John Singer 1856-1925
Sisley, Alfred 1839-1899
Sorolla y Bastida, Joaquin 1863-1923
Tarbell, Edmund Charles 1862-1938
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de 1864-1901
Vonnoh, Robert 1858-1933
Vuillard, Edouard 1868-1940
Ziem, Felix 1821-1911


Impressionism and Post-Impressionism - Art History Information

Impressionism was a 19th century art movement that began as a loose association of Paris-based artists, who began exhibiting their art publicly in the 1860s. The name of the movement is derived from the title of a Claude Monet work, Impression, Sunrise (Impression, soleil levant), which provoked the critic Louis Leroy to coin the term in a satiric review published in Le Charivari.

Characteristics of Impressionist painting include visible brushstrokes, open composition, emphasis on light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, the inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience, and unusual visual angles.

The emergence of Impressionism in the visual arts was soon followed by analogous movements in other media which became known as Impressionist music and Impressionist literature.

Impressionism also describes art created in this style, but outside of the late 19th century time period.

Overview
Radicals in their time, early Impressionists broke the rules of academic painting. They began by giving colors, freely brushed, primacy over line, drawing inspiration from the work of painters such as Eugene Delacroix. They also took the act of painting out of the studio and into the world. Previously, not only still lifes and portraits, but also landscapes, had been painted indoors, but the Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air. Painting realistic scenes of modern life, they emphasized vivid overall effects rather than details. They used short, "broken" brush strokes of pure and unmixed color, not smoothly blended, as was customary, in order to achieve the effect of intense color vibration.

Although the rise of Impressionism in France happened at a time when a number of other painters, including the Italian artists known as the Macchiaioli, and Winslow Homer in the United States, were also exploring plein-air painting, the Impressionists developed new techniques that were specific to the movement. Encompassing what its adherents argued was a different way of seeing, it was an art of immediacy and movement, of candid poses and compositions, of the play of light expressed in a bright and varied use of color.

The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if it did not receive the approval of the art critics and establishment.

By re-creating the sensation in the eye that views the subject, rather than recreating the subject, and by creating a welter of techniques and forms, Impressionism became seminal to various movements in painting which would follow, including Neo-Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism.

Beginnings
In an atmosphere of change as Empereur Napoleon III rebuilt Paris and waged war, the Academie des Beaux-Arts dominated the French art scene in the middle of the 19th century. The Academie was the upholder of traditional standards for French painting, both in content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued (landscape and still life were not), and the Academie preferred carefully finished images which mirrored reality when examined closely. Color was somber and conservative, and the traces of brush strokes were suppressed, concealing the artist's personality, emotions, and working techniques.

The Academie held an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries reflected the values of the Academie, represented by the highly polished works of such artists as Jean-Leon Gerome and Alexandre Cabanel.

The young artists painted in a lighter and brighter manner than painters of the preceding generation, extending further the realism of Gustave Courbet and the Barbizon school. They were more interested in painting landscape and contemporary life than in recreating scenes from history. Each year, they submitted their art to the Salon, only to see the juries reject their best efforts in favour of trivial works by artists working in the approved style. A core group of young realists, Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and Frederic Bazille, who had studied under Charles Gleyre, became friends and often painted together. They soon were joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cezanne and Armand Guillaumin.

In 1863, the jury rejected The Luncheon on the Grass (Le dejeuner sur l'herbe) by Edouard Manet primarily because it depicted a nude woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While nudes were routinely accepted by the Salon when featured in historical and allegorical paintings, the jury condemned Manet for placing a realistic nude in a contemporary setting. The jury's sharply worded rejection of Manet's painting, as well as the unusually large number of rejected works that year, set off a firestorm among French artists. Manet was admired by Monet and his friends, and led the discussions at Cafe Guerbois where the group of artists frequently met.

After seeing the rejected works in 1863, Emperor Napoleon III decreed that the public be allowed to judge the work themselves, and the Salon des Refuses (Salon of the Refused) was organized. While many viewers came only to laugh, the Salon des Refuses drew attention to the existence of a new tendency in art and attracted more visitors than the regular Salon.

Artists' petitions requesting a new Salon des Refuses in 1867, and again in 1872, were denied. In April of 1874 a group consisting of Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Sisley, Cezanne, Berthe Morisot, and Edgar Degas organized their own exhibition at the studio of the photographer Nadar. They invited a number of other progressive artists to exhibit with them, including the slightly older Eugene Boudin, whose example had first persuaded Monet to take up plein air painting years before. Another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in the exhibition, which was the first of eight that the group would present between 1874 and 1886.

The critical response was mixed, with Monet and Cezanne bearing the harshest attacks. Critic and humorist Louis Leroy wrote a scathing review in the Le Charivari newspaper in which, making wordplay with the title of Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise (Impression, soleil levant), he gave the artists the name by which they would become known. Derisively titling his article The Exhibition of the Impressionists, Leroy declared that Monet's painting was at most, a sketch, and could hardly be termed a finished work.

He wrote, in the form of a dialog between viewers,
Impression - I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that, since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it... and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! Wallpaper in its embryonic state is more finished than that seascape.

The term "Impressionists" quickly gained favour with the public. It was also accepted by the artists themselves, even though they were a diverse group in style and temperament, unified primarily by their spirit of independence and rebellion.

Monet, Sisley, Morisot, and Pissarro may be considered the "purest" Impressionists, in their consistent pursuit of an art of spontaneity, sunlight, and color. Degas rejected much of this, as he believed in the primacy of drawing over color and belittled the practice of painting outdoors. Renoir turned against Impressionism for a time in the 1880s, and never entirely regained his commitment to its ideas. Edouard Manet, despite his role as a leader to the group, never abandoned his liberal use of black as a color, and never participated in the Impressionist exhibitions. He continued to submit his works to the Salon, where his Spanish Singer had won a 2nd class medal in 1861, and he urged the others to do likewise, arguing that "the Salon is the real field of battle" where a reputation could be made.

Among the artists of the core group (minus Bazille, who had died in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870), defections occurred as Cezanne, followed later by Renoir, Sisley and Monet, abstained from the group exhibitions in order to submit their works to the Salon. Disagreements arose from issues such as Guillaumin's membership in the group, championed by Pissarro and Cezanne against opposition from Monet and Degas, who thought him unworthy. Degas invited Mary Cassatt to display her work in the 1879 exhibition, but he also caused dissention by insisting on the inclusion of Jean-Francois Raffaelli, Ludovic Lepic and other realists who did not represent Impressionist practices, leading Monet in 1880 to accuse the Impressionists of "opening doors to first-come daubers". The group divided over the invitation of Signac and Seurat to exhibit with them in 1886. Pissarro was the only artist to show at all eight Impressionist exhibitions.

The individual artists saw few financial rewards from the Impressionist exhibitions, but their art gradually won a degree of public acceptance. Their dealer, Durand-Ruel, played a major role in this as he kept their work before the public and arranged shows for them in London and New York. Although Sisley would die in poverty in 1899, Renoir had a great Salon success in 1879. Financial security came to Monet in the early 1880s and to Pissarro by the early 1890s. By this time the methods of Impressionist painting, in a diluted form, had become commonplace in Salon art.

Impressionist techniques
Short, thick strokes of paint are used to quickly capture the essence of the subject, rather than its details. The paint is often applied impasto.
Colors are applied side-by-side with as little mixing as possible, creating a vibrant surface. The optical mixing of colors occurs in the eye of the viewer.
Grays and dark tones are produced by mixing complementary colors. In pure Impressionism the use of black paint is avoided.
Wet paint is placed into wet paint without waiting for successive applications to dry, producing softer edges and an intermingling of color.
Impressionist paintings do not exploit the transparency of thin paint films (glazes) which earlier artists built up carefully to produce effects. The surface of an Impressionist painting is typically opaque.
The play of natural light is emphasized. Close attention is paid to the reflection of colors from object to object.
In paintings made en plein air (outdoors), shadows are boldly painted with the blue of the sky as it is reflected onto surfaces, giving a sense of freshness and openness that was not captured in painting previously. (Blue shadows on snow inspired the technique.)

Painters throughout history had occasionally used these methods, but Impressionists were the first to use all of them together, and with such boldness. Earlier artists whose works display these techniques include Frans Hals, Diego Velazquez, Peter Paul Rubens, John Constable and J. M. W. Turner.

French painters who prepared the way for Impressionism include the Romantic colorist Eugene Delacroix, the leader of the realists Gustave Courbet and painters of the Barbizon school such as Theodore Rousseau. The Impressionists learned much from the work of Camille Corot and Eugene Boudin, who painted from nature in a style that was close to Impressionism, and who befriended and advised the younger artists.

Impressionists took advantage of the mid-century introduction of premixed paints in lead tubes (resembling modern toothpaste tubes) which allowed artists to work more spontaneously, both outdoors and indoors. Previously, painters made their own paints individually, by grinding and mixing dry pigment powders with linseed oil, which were then stored in animal bladders.

Content and composition
Before the Impressionists other painters, notably such 17th century Dutch painters as Jan Steen, had focused on common subjects, but their approaches to composition were traditional. They arranged their compositions in such a way that the main subject commanded the viewer's attention. The Impressionists relaxed the boundary between subject and background so that the effect of an Impressionist painting often resembles a snapshot, a part of a larger reality captured as if by chance. Photography was gaining popularity, and as cameras became more portable, photographs became more candid. Photography inspired Impressionists to capture the moment, not only in the fleeting lights of a landscape, but in the day-to-day lives of people.

The rise of the impressionist movement can be seen in part as a reaction by artists to the newly established medium of photography. The taking of fixed or still images challenged painters by providing a new medium with which to capture reality. Initially photography's presence seemed to undermine the artist's depiction of nature and their ability to mirror reality. Both portrait and landscape paintings were deemed somewhat deficient and lacking in truth as photography "produced lifelike images much more efficiently and reliably".

In spite of this, photography actually inspired artists to pursue other means of artistic expression, and rather than competing with photography to emulate reality, artists focused "on the one thing they could inevitably do better than the photograph - by further developing into an art form its very subjectivity in the conception of the image, the very subjectivity that photography eliminated". The Impressionists sought to express their perceptions of nature, rather than create exacting reflections or mirror images of the world. This allowed artists to subjectively depict what they saw with their "tacit imperatives of taste and conscience". Photography encouraged painters to exploit aspects of the painting medium, like colour, which photography then lacked; "the Impressionists were the first to consciously offer a subjective alternative to the photograph".

Another major influence was Japanese art prints (Japonism), which had originally come into France as wrapping paper for imported goods. The art of these prints contributed significantly to the "snapshot" angles and unconventional compositions which would become characteristic of the movement.

Edgar Degas was both an avid photographer and a collector of Japanese prints. His The Dance Class (La classe de danse) of 1874 shows both influences in its asymmetrical composition. The dancers are seemingly caught off guard in various awkward poses, leaving an expanse of empty floor space in the lower right quadrant.

Post-Impressionism
Post-Impressionism is the term coined by the British artist and art critic Roger Fry in 1910, to describe the development of European art since Manet. John Rewald, one of the first professional art historians to focus on the birth of early modern art, limited the scope to the years between 1886 and 1892 in his pioneering publication on Post-Impressionism: From Van Gogh to Gauguin (1956): Rewald considered it to continue his History of Impressionism (1946), and pointed out that a "subsequent volume dedicated to the second half of the post-impressionist period" - Post-Impressionism: From Gauguin to Matisse - was to follow, extending the period covered to other artistic movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries - to artistic movements based on or derived from Impressionism.

Post-Impressionism was both an extension of Impressionism and a rejection of its limitations. Post-Impressionists continued using vivid colours, thick application of paint, distinctive brushstrokes and real-life subject matter, but they were more inclined to emphasize geometric forms, to distort form for expressive effect, and to use unnatural or arbitrary colour. The Impressionist Camille Pissarro experimented with Neo-Impressionist ideas between the mid 1880s and the early 1890s. Discontented with what he referred to as "romantic Impressionism," he investigated Pointillism which he called "scientific Impressionism" before returning to a purer Impressionism in the last decade of his life. The Post-Impressionists were dissatisfied with the triviality of subject matter and the loss of structure in Impressionist paintings, though they did not agree on the way forward. Georges Seurat and his followers concerned themselves with Pointillism, the systematic use of tiny dots of colour. Paul Cezanne set out to restore a sense of order and structure to painting. He achieved this by reducing objects to their basic shapes while retaining the bright fresh colours of Impressionism. Vincent van Gogh used colour and vibrant swirling brush strokes to convey his feelings and his state of mind. Although they often exhibited together, Post-Impressionist artists were not in agreement concerning a cohesive movement. Younger painters during the 1890s and early 20th century worked in geographically disparate regions and in various stylistic categories, such as Fauvism and Cubism. Post-Impressionism is very important in France's artistic history.

REALIST PAINTERS AND REALISM

Realism Artists Index

Bierstadt, Albert 1830-1902
Bingham, George Caleb 1811-1879
Boldini, Giovanni 1842-1931
Breton, Jules 1827-1906
Bridgman, Frederick Arthur 1847-1928
Brown, John George 1831-1913
Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille 1796-1875
Courbet, Gustave 1819-1877
Daubigny, Charles-Francois 1817-1878
Daumier, Honore 1808-1879
Dehodencq, Alfred 1822-1882
Dupre, Julien 1851-1910
Eakins, Thomas 1844-1916
Genis, Bilal 1954
Holsoe, Carl Vilhelm 1863-1935
Homer, Winslow 1836-1910
Hopper, Edward 1882-1967
Israels, Jozef 1824-1911
Johnson, Eastman 1824-1906
Jones, Hugh Bolton 1848-1927
Leader, Benjamin Williams 1831-1923
Levitan, Isaac Ilyich 1860-1900
Lhermitte, Leon-Augustin 1844-1925
Manet, Edouard 1832-1883
Matejko, Jan 1838-1893
Mauve, Anton 1838-1888
Menzel, Adolph von 1815-1905
Millet, Jean-Francois 1814-1875
Monsted, Peder 1859-1941
Polenov, Vasiliy 1844-1927
Pymonenko, Mykola 1862-1912
Repin, Ilya 1844-1930
Rousseau, Theodore 1812-1867
Russell, Charles Marion 1864-1926
Sanchez-Perrier, Emilio 1855-1907
Santoro, Rubens 1859-1942
Savrasov, Alexey Kondratyevich 1830-1897
Serov, Valentin Aleksandrovich 1865-1911
Sharp, Joseph Henry 1859-1953
Shishkin, Ivan Ivanovich 1832-1898
Tanner, Henry Ossawa 1859-1937
Trouillebert, Paul Desire 1829-1900
Tuke, Henry Scott 1858-1929
Unterberger, Franz Richard 1838-1902
Weissenbruch, Johan Hendrik 1824-1903
Zorn, Anders 1860-1920


Realism - Art History Information

Realism is commonly defined as a concern for fact or reality and rejection of the impractical and visionary. However, the term realism is used, with varying meanings, in several of the liberal arts; particularly painting, literature, and philosophy. It is also used in international relations.

Realism in visual arts and literature
In the visual arts and literature, realism is a mid-19th century movement, which started in France. In response to growing positivism after the French Revolution and greater optimism that humans could understand the world through science, philosophy and the arts, the realists sought to render everyday characters, situations, dilemmas, and events in an "accurate" (or realistic) manner. This is in contrast with the earlier romanticism, in which subjects were treated idealistically. Realists tended to discard theatrical drama and classical forms of art to depict commonplace or 'realistic' themes.

The painter Gustave Courbet, rejecting both neoclassicism and romanticism, proclaimed a one-man movement called realism. He had no interest in history painting, portraiture of heads of state, or exotic subject matter, for he believed that the artist should be realistic and paint everyday events involving ordinary people. The milieu chosen by Courbet for many of his canvases was Ornan, his native village in eastern France; there he portrayed laborers building a road, townspeople attending a funeral, or men sitting around the dinner table listening to music and smoking. Although there was no formal realist movement in art, trends in the work of certain other 19th-century painters can be identified as realistic. Honore Daumier, although better known for his lithographs, painted small realistic canvases of Paris street life and Jean Millet, of the Barbizon school, is sometimes termed a social realist.

Barbizon school
The Barbizon school (circa 1830-1870) of painters is named after the village of Barbizon near Fontainebleau Forest, France, where the artists gathered.

The Barbizon painters were part of a movement towards realism in art which arose in the context of the dominant Romantic Movement of the time.

In 1824 the Salon de Paris exhibited works of John Constable. His rural scenes influenced some of the younger artists of the time, moving them to abandon formalism and to draw inspiration directly from nature. Natural scenes became the subjects of their paintings rather than mere backdrops to dramatic events.

During the Revolutions of 1848 artists gathered at Barbizon to follow Constable's ideas, making nature the subject of their paintings.

One of them, Jean-Francois Millet, extended the idea from landscape to figures - peasant figures, scenes of peasant life, and work in the fields. In The Gleaners (1857), Millet portrays three peasant women working at the harvest. There is no drama and no story told, merely three peasant women in a field.

The leaders of the Barbizon school were Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot, Theodore Rousseau, Jean-Francois Millet and Charles-Francois Daubigny; other members included Jules Dupre, Henri Harpignies, Albert Charpin, Felix Ziem and Alexandre DeFaux.

Peredvizhniki
Peredvizhniki, often called The Wanderers or The Itinerants in English, were a group of Russian realist artists who in protest at academic restrictions formed an artists' cooperative which evolved into the Society for Traveling Art Exhibitions in 1870.

The society formed in 1870 in St. Petersburg under Ivan Kramskoi, Grigoriy Myasoyedov, Nikolai Ge and Vasily Perov's initiative during a struggle of the avant-garde art forces of the country for democratic ideals, and in a counterbalance to the official center of art - the St.Petersburg Academy of Arts. The society developed the best traditions of the Artel of Artists headed by Kramskoi, who became the leader of the new association.

Peredvizhniki were influenced by the public and aesthetic views of Vissarion Belinsky and Nikolai Chernyshevsky.

From 1871 to 1923 the society arranged 48 mobile exhibitions in St.Petersburg and Moscow, after which they were shown in Kiev, Kharkov, Kazan, Orel, Riga, Odessa and other cities.

As realist artists they showed the many-sided characters of social life, often with critical tendency. Their art showed not only poverty but also the beauty of folk way of life; not only suffering but also fortitude, strength of characters. In the humanistic art of Peredvizhniki there was resolute condemnation of the Russian autocratic orders; the emancipation movement of Russian people was shown with empathy (The Arrest of Propagandist; Refuse from Confession; Not Expected by Ilya Yefimovich Repin). The most important meaning in their art was social-urban life, and later in historic art depicting the people (The Morning of the Execution of Streltsy by Vasily Surikov).

The Peredvizhniki's society, during their blossoming (1870-1890), developed an increasingly wider scope, and increasing naturalness and freedom of the images. In contrast to the traditional dark palette of the time, they chose a freer, wider manner with a lighter palette in depicting light. They aimed for naturalness in their images, and depiction of peoples relationship with their surroundings.

The innovative, originally folk art of Peredvizhniki, served as effective means of democratic, public, moral and aesthetic education of many generations and became an important factor of development of Russian emancipation movement by helping grow the revolutionary consciousness of the society. V.I. Lenin, and advanced the people of Russian revolutionary movement.

The society united almost all most talented art forces of the country. Among Peredvizhniki there were artists of Ukraine, Latvia, and Armenia. The society also showed the work of Mark Antokolski, Vasili Vereshchagin, and Andrei Ryabushkin. Important in the development of Peredvizhniki's art was critic and democrat Vladimir Stasov, and Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov who showed them in his gallery and rendered them important material and moral support.

The authority and public influence of the society steadily grew, and the autocracy had to stop the initial tactics of clip (sic) and hunting of Peredvizhniki. Attempts were made to subordinate their activity, and raise the falling value of Academy of Arts sanctioned works.

By the 1890s in Academy of Arts structure was including Peredvizhniki art, and showing their influence in national art schools.

At the turn of the 20th century Peredvizhniki began to lose their depth as a reflection of a life. The influence of the society waned, and some of the artists began showing socialist ideas reflecting the development of working class movement. Many of the Peredvizhniki entered in the Soviet art culture, carried the realistic traditions of 19th century and helped form the art of Socialist realism.

In 1898, their influence was superseded by Mir iskusstva, which advanced modern trends in Russian art.

The 48th exhibition of Peredvizhniki in 1923 was the last one. Most members joined the Association of Artists in Revolutionary Russia (AKhRR), whose members leaned on the traditions of Peredvizhniki and aspired to create of art understandable by people and faithfully reflecting the Soviet validity.

ROMANTIC PAINTER AND ROMANTICISM

Romanticism Artists Index

Agasse, Jacques-Laurent 1767-1849
Aivazovsky, Ivan Konstantinovich 1817-1900
Audubon, John James 1785-1851
Bamberger, Fritz 1814-1873
Birch, Thomas 1779-1851
Bonington, Richard Parkes 1802-1828
Bradford, William 1823-1892
Bricher, Alfred Thompson 1837-1908
Carr, Samuel 1837-1908
Church, Frederic Edwin 1826-1900
Cole, Thomas 1801-1848
Constable, John 1776-1837
Copley, John Singleton 1738-1815
Cropsey, Jasper Francis 1823-1900
Dore, Gustave 1832-1883
Durand, Asher Brown 1796-1886
Durrie, George Henry 1820-1863
Friedrich, Caspar David 1774-1840
Genis, Bilal 1954
Gifford, Sanford Robinson 1823-1880
Gignoux, Regis-Francois 1816-1882
Hackert, Jacob Philippe 1737-1807
Harnett, William Michael 1848-1892
Hart, James McDougal 1828-1901
Heade, Martin Johnson 1819-1904
Healy, George 1813-1894
Hone, Nathaniel 1718-1784
Inness, George 1825-1894
Kensett, John Frederick 1816-1872
Koller, Rudolf 1828-1905
Krieghoff, Cornelius 1815-1872
Kugelgen, Franz Gerhard von 1772-1820
Lacroix, Paul 1827-1869
Leutze, Emanuel Gottlieb 1816-1868
Meyerheim, Friedrich 1808-1879
Michel, Georges 1763-1843
Moran, Thomas 1837-1926
Overbeck, Johann Friedrich 1789-1869
Ranney, William Tylee 1813-1857
Reinhold, Heinrich 1788-1825
Richards, William Trost 1833-1905
Roberts, David 1796-1864
Salmon, Robert c.1775-c.1845
Scheffer, Ary 1798-1858
Sonntag, William Louis 1822-1900
Spitzweg, Carl 1808-1885
Stieler, Joseph Karl 1781-1858
Stuart, Gilbert 1755-1828
Stubbs, George 1724-1806
Sully, Thomas 1783-1872
Turner, Joseph Mallord William 1775-1851
Vernet, Claude-Joseph 1714-1789
Volaire, Pierre Jacques 1729-c.1802
Weitsch, Friedrich Georg 1758-1828
Whittredge, Thomas Worthington 1820-1910
Wilson, Richard 1714-1782
Wolf, Caspar 1735-1783
Wright of Derby, Joseph 1734-1797
Wyant, Alexander Helwig 1836-1892


Romanticism - Art History Information

Romanticism is a complex artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the Industrial Revolution. It was partly a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature, and was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature.

The movement stressed strong emotion as a source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as trepidation, horror, and the awe experienced in confronting the sublimity in untamed nature and its qualities that are "picturesque", both new aesthetic categories. It elevated folk art and custom, as well as arguing for a "natural" epistemology of human activities as conditioned by nature in the form of language, custom and usage.

Our modern sense of a romantic character is sometimes based on Byronic or Romantic ideals. Romanticism reached beyond the rational and Classicist ideal models to elevate medievalism and elements of art and narrative perceived to be authentically medieval, in an attempt to escape the confines of population growth, urban sprawl and industrialism, and it also attempted to embrace the exotic, unfamiliar and distant in modes more authentic than chinoiserie, harnessing the power of the imagination to envision and to escape.

The ideologies and events of the French Revolution, rooted in Romanticism, affected the direction it was to take, and the confines of the Industrial Revolution also had their influence on Romanticism, which was in part an escape from modern realities; indeed, in the second half of the nineteenth century, "Realism" was offered as a polarized opposite to Romanticism. Romanticism elevated the achievements of what it perceived as misunderstood heroic individuals and artists that altered society. It also legitimized the individual imagination as a critical authority which permitted freedom from classical notions of form in art. There was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas.

Characteristics
In a general sense, the term "Romanticism" has been used to refer to certain artists, poets, writers, musicians, as well as political, philosophical and social thinkers of the late eighteenth and early to mid nineteenth centuries. It has equally been used to refer to various artistic, intellectual, and social trends of that era. Despite this general usage of the term, a precise characterization and specific definition of Romanticism have been the subject of debate in the fields of intellectual history and literary history throughout the twentieth century, without any great measure of consensus emerging. Arthur Lovejoy attempted to demonstrate the difficulty of this problem in his seminal article "On The Discrimination of Romanticisms" in his Essays in the History of Ideas (1948); some scholars see romanticism as essentially continuous with the present, some see in it the inaugural moment of modernity, some see it as the beginning of a tradition of resistance to the Enlightenment a Counter-Enlightenment and still others place it firmly in the direct aftermath of the French Revolution. An earlier definition comes from Charles Baudelaire: "Romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice of subject nor exact truth, but in the way of feeling."

Many intellectual historians have seen Romanticism as a key movement in the Counter-Enlightenment, a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment. Whereas the thinkers of the Enlightenment emphasized the primacy of deductive reason, Romanticism emphasized intuition, imagination, and feeling, to a point that has led to some Romantic thinkers being accused of irrationalism.

Etymology
Romanticism is closely tied to the idea of the "Romantic." Note the capital 'R' differs from "romantic" meaning "someone involved in romance," although the words have the same root. The word romance comes from the Old French romanz, which is a genre of prose or poetic heroic narrative originating in medieval literature. Just as we speak of Romance languages, romanz was written in the vernacular and not in Latin.

Romanticism and music
In general, the term "Romanticism" when applied to music has come to mean the period roughly from the 1820s until around 1900. The contemporary application of 'romantic' to music did not coincide with modern categories, however: in 1810 E.T.A. Hoffmann called Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven the three "Romantic Composers", and Ludwig Spohr used the term "good Romantic style" to apply to parts of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Technically, Mozart is considered classical and by most standards Beethoven is the start of the musical Romantic period. By the early twentieth century, the sense that there had been a decisive break with the musical past led to the establishment of the nineteenth century as "The Romantic Era," and it is referred to as such in the standard encyclopedias of music.

The traditional modern discussion of the music of Romanticism includes elements, such as the growing use of folk music, which are also directly related to the broader current of Romantic nationalism in the arts as well as aspects already present in eighteenth-century music, such as the cantabile accompanied melody to which Romantic composers beginning with Franz Schubert applied restless key modulations.

The heightened contrasts and emotions of Sturm und Drang (German for "Storm and Stress") seem a precursor of the Gothic novel in literature, or the sanguinary elements of some of the operas of the period of the French Revolution. The libretti of Lorenzo da Ponte for Mozart's eloquent music, convey a new sense of individuality and freedom. The romantic generation viewed Beethoven as their ideal of a heroic artist--a man who first dedicated a symphony to Consul Bonaparte as a champion of freedom and then challenged Emperor Napoleon by striking him out from the dedication of the Eroica Symphony. In Beethoven's Fidelio he creates the apotheosis of the 'rescue operas' which were another feature of French musical culture during the revolutionary period, in order to hymn the freedom which underlay the thinking of all radical artists in the years of hope after the Congress of Vienna.

In the contemporary music culture, the romantic musician followed a public career, depending on sensitive middle-class audiences rather than on a courtly patron, as had been the case with earlier musicians and composers. Public persona characterized a new generation of virtuosi who made their way as soloists, epitomized in the concert tours of Paganini and Liszt.

Beethoven's use of tonal architecture in such a way as to allow significant expansion of musical forms and structures was immediately recognized as bringing a new dimension to music. His later piano music and string quartets, especially, showed the way to a completely unexplored musical universe. E.T.A. Hoffmann was able to write of the supremacy of instrumental music over vocal music in expressiveness, a concept which would previously have been regarded as absurd. Hoffmann himself, as a practitioner both of music and literature, encouraged the notion of music as 'programmatic' or narrative, an idea which new audiences found attractive. Early nineteenth century developments in instrumental technology iron frames for pianos, wound metal strings for string instruments enabled louder dynamics, more varied tone colours, and the potential for sensational virtuosity. Such developments swelled the length of pieces, introduced programmatic titles, and created new genres such as the free-standing concert overture or tone poem, the piano fantasia, nocturne and rhapsody, and the virtuosic concerto, which became central to musical romanticism.

In opera, a new Romantic atmosphere combining supernatural terror and melodramatic plot in a folkloric context was most successfully achieved by Weber's Der Freischutz (1817, revised 1821). Enriched timbre and color marked the early orchestration of Hector Berlioz in France, and the grand operas of Meyerbeer. Amongst the radical fringe of what became mockingly characterised (adopting Wagner's own words) as 'artists of the future', Liszt and Wagner each embodied the Romantic cult of the free, inspired, charismatic, perhaps ruthlessly unconventional individual artistic personality.

It is the period of 1815 to 1848 which must be regarded as the true age of Romanticism in music - the age of the last compositions of Beethoven (d. 1827) and Schubert (d. 1828), of the works of Schumann (d. 1856) and Chopin (d.1849), of the early struggles of Berlioz and Richard Wagner, of the great virtuosi such as Paganini (d. 1840), and the young Liszt and Thalberg. Now that we are able to listen to the work of Mendelssohn (d. 1847) stripped of the Biedermeier reputation unfairly attached to it, he can also be placed in this more appropriate context. After this period, with Chopin and Paganini dead, Liszt retired from the concert platform at a minor German court, Wagner effectively in exile until he obtained royal patronage in Bavaria, and Berlioz still struggling with the bourgeois liberalism which all but smothered radical artistic endeavour in Europe, Romanticism in music was surely past its prime giving way, rather, to the period of musical romantics.

Visual art and literature
In visual art and literature, Romanticism found recurrent themes in the evocation or criticism of the past, the cult of "sensibility" with its emphasis on women and children, the heroic isolation of the artist or narrator, and respect for a new, wilder, untrammeled and "pure" nature. Furthermore, several romantic authors, such as Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne, based their writings on the supernatural/occult and human psychology.

The Scottish poet James Macpherson influenced the early development of Romanticism with the international success of his Ossian cycle of poems published in 1762, inspiring both Goethe and the young Walter Scott.

An early German influence came from Johann Wolfgang Goethe whose 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young Werther had young men throughout Europe emulating its protagonist, a young artist with a very sensitive and passionate temperament. At that time Germany was a multitude of small separate states, and Goethe's works would have a seminal influence in developing a unifying sense of nationalism. Another philosophic influence came from the German idealism of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling, making Jena (where Fichte lived, as well as Schelling, Hegel, Schiller and the brothers Schlegel) a center for early German romanticism ("Jenaer Romantik"). Important writers were Ludwig Tieck, Novalis (Heinrich von Ofterdingen, 1799) and Friedrich Hoelderlin. Heidelberg later became a center of German romanticism, where writers and poets such as Clemens Brentano, Achim von Arnim, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff met regularly in literary circles. Important motifs in German Romanticism are travelling, nature, and ancient myths. The later German Romanticism of, for example, E. T. A. Hoffmann's Der Sandmann (The Sandman), 1817, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff's Das Marmorbild (The Marble Statue), 1819, was darker in its motifs and has gothic elements.

Romanticism in British literature developed in a different form slightly later, mostly associated with the poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, whose co-authored book Lyrical Ballads (1798) sought to reject Augustan poetry in favour of more direct speech derived from folk traditions. Both poets were also involved in utopian social thought in the wake of the French Revolution. The poet and painter William Blake is the most extreme example of the Romantic sensibility in Britain, epitomised by his claim "I must create a system or be enslaved by another man's." Blake's artistic work is also strongly influenced by Medieval illuminated books. The painters J. M. W. Turner and John Constable are also generally associated with Romanticism. Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Mary Shelley and John Keats constitute another phase of Romanticism in Britain.

In predominantly Roman Catholic countries Romanticism was less pronounced than in Germany and Britain, and tended to develop later, after the rise of Napoleon. Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand is often called the "Father of French Romanticism". In France, the movement is associated with the nineteenth century, particularly in the paintings of Theodore Gericault and Eugene Delacroix, the plays, poems and novels of Victor Hugo (such as Les Miserables and Ninety-Three), and the novels of Stendhal. The composer Hector Berlioz is also important.

In Russia, the principal exponent of Romanticism is Alexander Pushkin. Mikhail Lermontov attempted to analyse and bring to light the deepest reasons for the Romantic idea of metaphysical discontent with society and self, and was much influenced by Lord Byron. The poet Fyodor Tyutchev was also an important figure of the movement in Russia, and was heavily influenced by the German Romantics.

Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many Central European peoples lacking their own national states, not least in Poland, which had recently lost its independence when Russia's army crushed the Polish Rebellion under the reactionary Nicholas I. Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths, customs and traditions by Romantic poets and painters helped to distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of the dominant nations and crystallise the mythography of Romantic nationalism. Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed struggle for independence also became popular themes in the arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Romantic poet of this part of Europe was Adam Mickiewicz, who developed an idea that Poland was the Messiah of Nations, predestined to suffer just as Jesus had suffered to save all the people.

In the United States, the romantic gothic made an early appearance with Washington Irving's Legend of Sleepy Hollow 1820) and Rip Van Winkle (1819), followed from 1823 onwards by the Leatherstocking tales of James Fenimore Cooper, with their emphasis on heroic simplicity and their fervent landscape descriptions of an already-exotic mythicized frontier peopled by "noble savages", similar to the philosophical theory of Rousseau, exemplified by Uncas, from The Last of the Mohicans. There are picturesque "local color" elements in Washington Irving's essays and especially his travel books. Edgar Allan Poe's tales of the macabre and his balladic poetry were more influential in France than at home, but the romantic American novel developed fully in Nathaniel Hawthorne's atmosphere and melodrama. Later Transcendentalist writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson still show elements of its influence, as does the romantic realism of Walt Whitman. But by the 1880s, psychological and social realism was competing with romanticism in the novel. The poetry which Americans wrote and read was all romantic until the 1920s: Poe and Hawthorne, as well as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. The poetry of Emily Dickinson - nearly unread in her own time - and Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick can be taken as epitomes of American Romantic literature, or, by interpreting their sometimes subversive subtexts, as successors to it. As in England, Germany, and France, literary Romanticism had its counterpart in American visual arts, most especially in the exaltation of untamed America found in the paintings of the Hudson River School. Painters like Thomas Cole, Albert Bierstadt and Frederic Edwin Church and others often combined a sense of the sublime with underlying religious and philosophical themes. Thomas Cole's paintings feature strong narratives as in The Voyage of Life series painted in the early 1840s that depict man trying to survive amidst an awesome and immense nature, from the cradle to the grave.

Nationalism
One of Romanticism's key ideas and most enduring legacies is the assertion of nationalism, which became a central theme of Romantic art and political philosophy. From the earliest parts of the movement, with their focus on development of national languages and folklore, and the importance of local customs and traditions, to the movements which would redraw the map of Europe and lead to calls for self-determination of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key vehicles of Romanticism, its role, expression and meaning.

Early Romantic nationalism was strongly inspired by Rousseau, and by the ideas of Johann Gottfried von Herder, who in 1784 argued that the geography formed the natural economy of a people, and shaped their customs and society.

The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after the French Revolution with the rise of Napoleon, and the reactions in other nations. Napoleonic nationalism and republicanism were, at first, inspirational to movements in other nations: self-determination and a consciousness of national unity were held to be two of the reasons why France was able to defeat other countries in battle. But as the French Republic became Napoleon's Empire, Napoleon became not the inspiration for nationalism, but the object of its struggle. In Prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word Volkstum, or nationality, was coined in German as part of this resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte expressed the unity of language and nation in his address "To the German Nation" in 1806:
Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole. ...Only when each people, left to itself, develops and forms itself in accordance with its own peculiar quality, and only when in every people each individual develops himself in accordance with that common quality, as well as in accordance with his own peculiar quality then, and then only, does the manifestation of divinity appear in its true mirror as it ought to be.

This view of nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm, the revival of old epics as national, and the construction of new epics as if they were old, as in the Kalevala, compiled from Finnish tales and folklore, or Ossian, where the claimed ancient roots were invented. The view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside, literary sources, were preserved in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists, but fit in well with their views that such tales expressed the primordial nature of a people. For instance, the Brothers Grimm rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by Charles Perrault, which they thought proved they were not truly German tales; Sleeping Beauty survived in their collection because the tale of Brynhildr convinced them that the figure of the sleeping princess was authentically German.

The brief revolutionary career of Robert Emmet in 1803 in Ireland could have ended in obscurity, but romantic writers such as Thomas Moore ensured that he would be remembered long after his death. His good character combined with failure provided an ideal example of the romantic hero.

Hudson River School
The Hudson River School was a mid-19th century American art movement by a group of landscape painters, whose aesthetic vision was influenced by romanticism. Their paintings depict the Hudson River Valley and the surrounding area, as well as the Catskill Mountains, Adirondack Mountains, and White Mountains of New Hampshire. "School", in this sense, refers to a group of people whose outlook, inspiration, output, or style demonstrates a common thread, rather than a learning institution.

Neither the originator of the term Hudson River School nor its first published use has been fixed with certainty. It is thought to have originated with the New York Tribune art critic Clarence Cook or the landscape painter Homer D. Martin). As originally used, the term was meant disparagingly, as the work so labelled had gone out of favor when the Barbizon School and Impressionism came into vogue.

Hudson River School paintings reflect three themes of America in the 19th century: discovery, exploration, and settlement. The paintings also depict the American landscape as a pastoral setting, where human beings and nature coexist peacefully. Hudson River School landscapes are characterized by their realistic, detailed, and sometimes idealized portrayal of nature along with the juxtaposition of colonialism and wilderness. In general, Hudson River School artists believed that nature in the form of the American landscape was an ineffable manifestation of God, though the artists varied in the depth of their religious conviction. They took as their inspiration such European masters as Claude Lorrain, John Constable and J.M.W. Turner and shared a reverence for America's natural beauty with contemporary American writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson.

While the elements of the paintings are rendered very realistically, many of the actual scenes are the synthesized compositions of multiple scenes or natural images observed by the artists. In gathering the visual data for their paintings, the artists would travel to rather extraordinary and extreme environments, the likes of which would not permit the act of painting. During these expeditions, sketches and memories would be recorded and the paintings would be rendered later, upon the artists' safe return home.

Thomas Cole
The artist Thomas Cole is generally acknowledged as the founder of the Hudson River School. Cole took a steamship up the Hudson in the autumn of 1825, the same year the Erie Canal opened, stopping first at West Point, then at Catskill landing where he ventured west high up into the eastern Catskill Mountains of New York State to paint the first landscapes of the area. The first review of his work appeared in the New York Evening Post on Nov. 22, 1825. At that time, only the English native Cole, born in a monochromatic green landscape, found the brilliant autumn hues of the area unusual. Cole's close friend, Asher Durand, became a prominent figure in the school as well, particularly when the banknote-engraving business evaporated in the Panic of 1837.

Second generation
The second generation of Hudson River school artists emerged to prominence after Cole's premature death in 1848, including Cole's prize pupil Frederic Edwin Church, John Frederick Kensett and Sanford Robinson Gifford. Works by artists of this second generation are often described as examples of Luminism, or the Luminist movement in American art. In addition to pursuing their art, many of the artists, including Kensett. Gifford and Church, were founders of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.

Most of the finest works of the Hudson River school were painted between 1855 and 1875. During that time, artists like Frederic Edwin Church and Albert Bierstadt were treated like major celebrities. When Church exhibited paintings like Niagara or Icebergs of the North, thousands of people would line up around the block and pay fifty cents a head to view the solitary work. The epic size of the landscapes in these paintings reminded Americans of the vast, untamed, but magnificent wilderness areas in their country, and their works helped build upon movements to settle the American West, preserve national parks, and create city parks.

CLASSIC PAINTERS AND CLASSICISM

PAINTE

POET

PENMAN

RESSAM

ŞAİR

YAZAR

BİLAL GENİŞ





Classicism Artists Index

Amerling, Friedrich von 1803-1887
Blaas, Eugen de 1843-1931
Bonnaud, Pierre 1865-1930
Boucherville, Adrien de 1829-1912
Bouguereau, Adolphe-William 1825-1905
Brandt, Jozef 1841-1915
Carolus-Duran, Charles Emile August 1837-1917
Catala, Luis Alvarez 1836-1901
Chelminski, Jan van 1851-1925
Comerre, Leon Francois 1850-1916
Cot, Pierre-Auguste 1837-1883
Delaroche, Paul 1797-1856
Ernst, Rudolph 1854-1932
Flameng, Francois 1856-1923
Frere, Charles-Theodore 1814-1888
Fromentin, Eugene 1820-1876
Genis, Bilal 1954
Gerome, Jean Leon 1824-1904
Gilbert, Victor Gabriel 1847-1933
Hublin, Emile Auguste 1830-1891
Kaemmerer, Frederick Hendrik 1839-1902
Kaufmann, Isidor 1854-1921
Knight, Daniel Ridgway 1839-1924
Ladell, Edward 1821-1886
Laurens, Jean-Paul 1838-1921
Lefebvre, Jules Joseph 1836-1911
Lesrel, Adolphe Alexandre 1839-1929
Martin-Kavel, Francois 1861-1931
Meissonier, Jean-Louis-Ernest 1815-1891
Merle, Hugues 1823-1881
Merson, Luc Olivier 1846-1920
Munier, Emile 1810-1895
Perrault, Leon-Jean-Bazille 1832-1908
Pukirev, Vasily 1832-1890
Quadrone, Giovanni-Battista 1844-1898
Ralli, Theodore Jacques 1852-1909
Reggianini, Vittorio 1858-1938
Reichert, Carl 1836-1918
Ricci, Arturo 1854-1919
Robie, Jean-Baptiste 1821-1910
Rosati, Giulio 1858-1917
Roybet, Ferdinand Victor Leon 1840-1920
Salanson, Eugene-Marie 1864-1892
Schryver, Louis Marie de 1863-1942
Soulacroix, Frederick Charles 1825-1879
Vernet, Horace 1789-1863
Vibert, Jehan Georges 1840-1902
Wierusz-Kowalski, Alfred von 1849-1915
Winterhalter, Hermann 1808-1891
Winterhalter, Franz Xavier 1805-1873
Wontner, William Clarke 1857-1930
Yvon, Adolphe 1817-1893
Zabala, Eduardo Zamacois y 1842-1871
Zuber-Buhler, Fritz 1822-1896


Academic Classicism - Art History Information

Academic art is a style of painting and sculpture produced under the influence of European academies or universities.

Specifically, academic art is the art and artists influenced by the standards of the French Academie des beaux-arts, which practiced under the movements of Neoclassicism and Romanticism, and the art that followed these two movements in the attempt to synthesize both of their styles, and which is best reflected by the paintings of William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Suzor-Cote, Thomas Couture, and Hans Makart. In this context it is often called "academism", "academicism", "L'art pompier", and "eclecticism", and sometimes linked with "historicism" and "syncretism".

The art influenced by academies and universities in general is also called "academic art". In this context as new styles are embraced by academics, the new styles come to be considered academic, thus what was at one time a rebellion against academic art becomes academic art.

The academies in history
The first academy of art was founded in Florence in Italy in 1562 by Giorgio Vasari who called it the Accademia dell'Arte del Disegno. There students learned the "arti del disegno" (a term coined by Vasari) and included lectures on anatomy and geometry. Another academy, the Accademia di San Luca (named after the patron saint of painters, St. Luke), was founded about a decade later in Rome. The Accademia di San Luca served an educational function and was more concerned with art theory than the Florentine one. In 1582 Annibale Carracci opened his very influential Academy of Desiderosi in Bologna without official support; in some ways this was more like a traditional artist's workshop, but that he felt the need to label it as an "academy" demonstrates the attraction of the idea at the time.

Accademia di San Luca later served as the model for the Academie royale de peinture et de sculpture founded in France in 1648, and which later became the Academie des beaux-arts. The French Academie very probably adopted the term "arti del disegno" which it translated into "beaux arts", from which is derived the English term "fine arts". The Academie royale de peinture et de sculpture was founded in an effort to distinguish artists "who were gentlemen practicing a liberal art" from craftsmen, who were engaged in manual labor. This emphasis on the intellectual component of artmaking had a considerable impact on the subjects and styles of academic art.

After the Academie royale de peinture et de sculpture was reorganized in 1661 by Louis XIV whose aim was to control all the artistic activity in France, a controversy occurred among the members that dominated artistic attitudes for the rest of the century. This "battle of styles" was a conflict over whether Peter Paul Rubens or Nicolas Poussin was a suitable model to follow. Followers of Poussin, called "poussinistes", argued that line (disegno) should dominate art, because of its appeal to the intellect, while followers or Rubens, called "rubenistes", argued that color (colore) should dominate art, because of its appeal to emotion.

The debate was revived in the early 19th century, under the movements of Neoclassicism typified by the artwork of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, and Romanticism typified by the artwork of Eugene Delacroix. Debates also occurred over whether it was better to learn art by looking at nature, or to learn by looking at the artistic masters of the past.

Academies using the French model formed throughout Europe, and imitated the teachings and styles of the French Academie. In England, this was the Royal Academy. One effect of the move to academies was to make training more difficult for women artists, who were excluded from most academies until the last half of the nineteenth century (1861 for the Royal Academy). This was partly because of concerns over the propriety of life classes with nude models' special arrangements were often made for female students until the 20th century.

Development of the academic style
Since the onset of the poussiniste-rubiniste debate many artists worked between the two styles. In the 19th century, in the revived form of the debate, the attention and the aims of the art world became to synthesize the line of Neoclassicism with the color of Romanticism. One artist after another was claimed by critics to have achieved the synthesis, among them Theodore Chasseriau, Ary Scheffer, Francesco Hayez, Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps and Thomas Couture. William-Adolphe Bouguereau, a later academic artist, commented that the trick to being a good painter is seeing "color and line as the same thing." Thomas Couture promoted the same idea in a book he authored on art method arguing that whenever one said a painting had better color or better line it was nonsense, because whenever color appeared brilliant it depended on line to convey it, and vice versa; and that color was really a way to talk about the "value" of form.

Another development during this period included adopting historical styles in order to show the era in history that the painting depicted, called historicism. This is best seen in the work of Baron Henri Leys, a later influence on James Tissot. It's also seen in the development of the Neo-Grec style. Historicism is also meant to refer to the belief and practice associated with academic art that one should incorporate and conciliate the innovations of different traditions of art from the past.

The art world also grew to give increasing focus on allegory in art. Both theories of the importance of line and color asserted that through these elements an artist exerted control over the medium to create psychological effects, in which themes, emotions, and ideas can be represented. As artists attempted to synthesize these theories in practice, the attention on the artwork as an allegorical or figurative vehicle was emphasized. It was held that the representations in paintings and sculpture should evoke Platonic forms, or ideals, where behind ordinary depictions one would glimpse something abstract, some eternal truth. Hence, Keats' famous musing "Beauty is truth, truth beauty". The paintings were desired to be an "idee", a full and complete idea. Bouguereau is known to have said that he wouldn't paint "a war", but would paint "War". Many paintings by academic artists are simple nature-allegories with titles like Dawn, Dusk, Seeing, and Tasting, where these ideas are personified by a single nude figure, composed in such a way as to bring out the essence of the idea.

The trend in art was also towards greater idealism, which is contrary to realism, in that the figures depicted were made simpler and more abstract - idealized - in order to be able to represent the ideals they stood in for. This would involve both generalizing forms seen in nature, and subordinating them to the unity and theme of the artwork.

Because history and mythology were considered as plays or dialectics of ideas, a fertile ground for important allegory, using themes from these subjects was considered the most serious form of painting. A hierarchy of genres, originally created in the 17th century, was valued, where history painting - classical, religious, mythological, literary, and allegorical subjects - was placed at the top, next genre painting, then portraiture, still-life, and landscape. History painting was also known as the "grande genre". Paintings of Hans Makart are often larger than life historical dramas, and he combined this with a historicism in decoration to dominate the style of 19th century Vienna culture. Paul Delaroche is a typifying example of French history painting.

All of these trends were influenced by the theories of the philosopher Hegel, who held that history was a dialectic of competing ideas, which eventually resolved in synthesis.

Towards the end of the 19th century, academic art had saturated European society. Exhibitions were held often, and the most popular exhibition was the Paris Salon and beginning in 1903, the Salon d'Automne. These salons were sensational events that attracted crowds of visitors, both native and foreign. As much a social affair as an artistic one, 50,000 people might visit on a single Sunday, and as many as 500,000 could see the exhibition during its two-month run. Thousands of pictures were displayed, hung from just below eye level all the way up to the ceiling in a manner now known as "Salon style." A successful showing at the salon was a seal of approval for an artist, making his work saleable to the growing ranks of private collectors. Bouguereau, Alexandre Cabanel and Jean-Leon Gerome were leading figures of this art world.

During the reign of academic art, the paintings of the Rococo era, previously held in low favor, were revived to popularity, and themes often used in Rococo art such as Eros and Psyche were popular again. The academic art world also idolized Raphael, for the ideality of his work, in fact preferring him over Michelangelo.

Academic art not only held influence in Europe and the United States, but also extended its influence to non-Western countries. This was especially true for Latin American nations, which, because their revolutions were modeled on the French Revolution, sought to emulate French culture. An example of a Latin American academic artist is Angel Zarraga of Mexico.

Academic training
Young artists spent years in rigorous training. In France, only students who passed an exam and carried a letter of reference from a noted professor of art were accepted at the academy's school, the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Drawings and paintings of the nude, called "academies", were the basic building blocks of academic art and the procedure for learning to make them was clearly defined. First, students copied prints after classical sculptures, becoming familiar with the principles of contour, light, and shade. The copy was believed crucial to the academic education; from copying works of past artists one would assimilate their methods of art making. To advance to the next step, and every successive one, students presented drawings for evaluation.

If approved, they would then draw from plaster casts of famous classical sculptures. Only after acquiring these skills were artists permitted entrance to classes in which a live model posed. Interestingly, painting was not actually taught at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts until after 1863. To learn to paint with a brush, the student first had to demonstrate proficiency in drawing, which was considered the foundation of academic painting. Only then could the pupil join the studio of an academician and learn how to paint. Throughout the entire process, competitions with a predetermined subject and a specific allotted period of time measured each students' progress.

The most famous art competition for students was the Prix de Rome. The winner of the Prix de Rome was awarded a fellowship to study at the Academie francaise's school at the Villa Medici in Rome for up to five years. To compete, an artist had to be of French nationality, male, under 30 years of age, and single. He had to have met the entrance requirements of the Ecole and have the support of a well-known art teacher. The competition was grueling, involving several stages before the final one, in which 10 competitors were sequestered in studios for 72 days to paint their final history paintings. The winner was essentially assured a successful professional career.

As noted, a successful showing at the Salon was a seal of approval for an artist. The ultimate achievement for the professional artist was election to membership in the Academie francaise and the right to be known as an academician. Artists petitioned the hanging committee for optimal placement "on the line," or at eye level. After the exhibition opened, artists complained if their works were "skyed," or hung too high.

Criticism and legacy
Academic art was first criticised for its use of idealism, by Realist artists such as Gustave Courbet, as being based on idealistic cliches and representing mythical and legendary motives while contemporary social concerns were being ignored. Another criticism by Realists was the "false surface" of paintings - the objects depicted looked smooth, slick, and idealized - showing no real texture. The Realist Theodule Augustin Ribot worked against this by experimenting with rough, unfinished textures in his paintings.

Stylistically, the Impressionists, who advocated quickly painting outdoors exactly what the eye sees and the hand puts down, criticized the finished and idealized painting style. Although academic painters began a painting by first making drawings and then painting oil sketches of their subject, they would polish the drawings so much Impressionists alleged that the practice was tantamount to lying. After the oil sketch, the artist would produce the final painting with the academic "fini," changing the painting to meet stylistic standards and attempting to idealize the images and add perfect detail. Similarly, perspective is constructed geometrically on a flat surface and is not really the product of sight, Impressionists disavowed the devotion to mechanical techniques.

Realists and Impressionists also defied the placement of still-life and landscape at the bottom of the hierarchy of genres. It is important to note that most Realists and Impressionists and others among the early avant-garde who rebelled against academism were originally students in academic ateliers. Claude Monet, Gustave Courbet, Edouard Manet and even Henri Matisse were students under academic artists.

As modern art and its avant-garde gained more power, academic art was further denigrated, and seen as sentimental, cliched, conservative, non-innovative, bourgeois, and "styleless". The French referred derisively to the style of academic art as L'art Pompier (pompier means "fireman") alluding to the paintings of Jacques-Louis David (who was held in esteem by the academy) which often depicted soldiers wearing fireman-like helmets. The paintings were called "grande machines" which were said to have manufactured false emotion through contrivances and tricks.

This denigration of academic art reached its peak through the writings of art critic Clement Greenberg who stated that all academic art is "kitsch". References to academic art were gradually removed from histories of art and textbooks by modernists, who justified doing this in the name of cultural revolution. For most of the 20th century, academic art was completely obscured, only brought up rarely, and when brought up, done so for the purpose of ridiculing it and the bourgeois society which supported it, laying a groundwork for the importance of modernism.

Other artists, such as the Symbolist painters and some of the Surrealists, were kinder to the tradition. As painters who sought to bring imaginary vistas to life, these artists were more willing to learn from a strongly representational tradition. Once the tradition had come to be looked on as old-fashioned, the allegorical nudes and theatrically posed figures struck some viewers as bizarre and dreamlike.

With the goals of Postmodernism in giving a fuller, more sociological and pluralistic account of history, academic art has been brought back into history books and discussion, though many postmodern art historians hold a bias against the "bourgeois" nature of the art. Nevertheless, since the early 1990's, academic art has experienced a limited resurgence through the Classical Realist atelier movement. Still, the art is gaining a broader appreciation by the public at large, and whereas academic paintings once would only fetch a few hundreds of dollars in auctions, they now command millions.